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{{FrameworkIntroductionPartTemplate
{{FrameworkIntroductionPartTemplate
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|PageLabel=IMAGE 3.0 in a nutshell
|PageLabel=Features of the IMAGE 3.0 model
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|Description=<h2>The IMAGE 3.0 model</h2>
<div class="page_standard">
IMAGE 3.0 can be characterized by a set of features, some of which are also found in other global [[HasAcronym::IAM|IAMs]], others are more distinct. Key features include:
<h2>The IMAGE 3.0 model</h2>
IMAGE 3.0 is a comprehensive integrated modelling framework of interacting human and natural systems. The model framework is suited to large scale (primarily global) and long-term (up to the year 2100) assessments of interactions between human development and the natural environment. It integrates a range of sectors, ecosystems and indicators. The impacts of human activities on the natural systems and natural resources are assessed and how such impacts hamper the provision of ecosystem services to sustain human development.
 
The model identifies socio-economic pathways, and projects the implications for energy, land, water and other natural resources, subject to resource availability and quality. Unintended side effects, such as emissions to air, water and soil, climatic change, and depletion and degradation of remaining stocks (fossil fuels, forests), are calculated and considered in future projections.
 
===Features===
IMAGE has been designed to be comprehensive in terms of human activities, sectors and environmental impacts, and where and how these are connected through common drivers, mutual impacts, and synergies and trade-offs. IMAGE 3.0 is the latest version of the IMAGE framework models, and has the following features:


* Comprehensive and balanced integration of energy and land-use systems, including natural systems. From IMAGE 1.0 (see the section on history below) this constituted a  pioneering position  More recently, other IAMs develop in similar directions and today such comprehensive IAMs are becoming more mainstream,
*Comprehensive and balanced integration of energy and land systems was a pioneering feature of IMAGE. Recently, other {{abbrTemplate|IAM}}s have been developed in similar directions and comprehensive IAMs are becoming more mainstream.
* Coverage of all relevant emissions by sources/sinks including relevant natural sources/sinks, which makes the model appropriate to provide input for biogeochemistry models and [[HasAcronym::ESM|ESMs]].
* The IMAGE framework covers a broad range of more or less strongly interlinked dimensions besides the subject of climatic change, the primary focus of most IAMs. This includes: water availability and -quality, air quality, terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity, resource depletion, competing claims on land and many more ecosystem goods and services.
* All terrestrial processes are modelled spatially explicit, that is by unique and identifiable grid cells. Not only does this allow to capture the influence of local conditions rather than averages over larger areas, it also yields valuable results and insights for impact models.
* The IMAGE model is based on biophysical/technical processes, allowing to capture inherent constraints and limits posed by these processes and ensuring that physical relationships are not violated.
* [[MAGICC model|MAGICC]]-6 as a simple climate model calibrated to more complex climate models is fully integrated into the IMAGE framework. Using [[Downscaling|downscaling]] tools, the model can also use the  spatial patterns of temperature and precipitation changes, varying between different climate models.
* The richness of the description of the technical energy systems, together with the integration with land-use related emissions and carbon sinks, allows IMAGE to explore very low greenhouse gas emissions scenarios, contributing to the increasingly explored field of very low climate forcing scenarios.
* The integrated nature of IMAGE allows to explore linkages between climate change, other environmental concerns and human development issues. Thus, it contributes to informed discussion of more sustainable futures including trade-offs and synergies between stresses and possible solutions.


*Coverage of all emissions by sources/sinks including natural sources/sinks makes IMAGE appropriate to provide input to bio-geochemistry models and complex Earth System Models ({{abbrTemplate|ESMs}}).


As indicated in the previous paragraphs, IMAGE 3.0 is a comprehensively integrated modeling framework of interacting human and natural systems. By design it aims to stay in the realm of intermediate complexity modeling, balancing a level of detail as high as needed to capture key processes and behaviour with a level as low as possible to allow for multiple runs to explore various aspects of sensitivity and uncertainty; [[IMAGE framework introduction/Organizational setup]]. The model framework is particularly suited to support large scale (mostly global) and long-term (up to the year 2100) assessments of key aspects of interactions between human development and the state of the natural environment, integrating across a range of sectors, ecosystems and indicators. On the one hand considering how human activities impact natural systems and natural resources. On the other hand how such impacts hamper the provision of ecosystem goods and services deemed critical to sustain human development.  
*In addition to climate change, which is the primary focus of most IAMs, the IMAGE framework covers a broad range of closely interlinked dimensions. These include water availability and water quality, air quality, terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity, resource depletion, with competing claims on land and many ecosystem services.


To do so, socio-economic pathways are identified and their implications for energy, land, water and other natural resources are projected by the model, subject to resource availability and quality. Unintended side effects such as emissions to air, water and soils, climatic change, and depletion and degradation of remaining stocks (fossil fuels, forests) are calculated, and are taken into account when moving out into the future.
*Rather than averages over larger areas, spatial modelling of all terrestrial processes for specific grid cells captures the influence of local conditions and yields valuable results and insights for impact models.


Traditionally, IMAGE has strived to be comprehensive in terms of human activities, sectors and environmental problems and where and how these are connected through common drivers, through mutual impacts and through synergy and trade-off. In this sense IMAGE differs from other IAM models, that are for the most part rooted in the energy-economy-climate nexus and have expanded their coverage only more recently to issues of land-use and land-cover change, water availability and other broader sustainable development issues.
*IMAGE is based on biophysical/technical processes, capturing these processes' inherent constraints and limits.


As described in [[Scenario drivers]], future pathways or scenarios depend critically on assumed projections of key driving forces. Hence all results can only be understood and interpreted properly in the context of the assumed future environment in which they unfold.
*Integrated into the IMAGE framework, [[MAGICC model|MAGICC-6]] is a simple climate model calibrated to more complex climate models. Using downscaling tools, this model uses the spatial patterns of temperature and precipitation changes, which vary between climate models.  


The figure below illustrates how the various subsystems of the overall IMAGE framework are put together, showing the flow of information from the key driving factors to the impact indicators. As the diagram shows, it projects how human activities would develop in the box Socio-economic System as a result of a suite of exogenous drivers; see the box Scenario drivers and [[Scenario drivers]]. The human activities and the associated demands for goods and services are squared with the Earth System through the ‘interconnectors’ [[Land cover and use]], and [[Emissions]]. Assumed policy interventions lead to model responses, taking all internal interactions and feedback into account; see the rightmost box. Impacts in various forms arise either directly from the model itself, for example the extent of future land-use for agriculture, forestry, etc.; or the average global temperature rise until the year 2050. Other indicators are generated by invoking additional models that use output from the core IMAGE model, together with other relevant assumptions to estimate the effects. For example biodiversity ([[GLOBIO model|GLOBIO]]; see [[Aquatic biodiversity]]) or [[Flood risks]]. Obviously, impacts emerging from such additional models do not influence the outcome of the model run directly. But the results found can reveal unsustainable or otherwise undesirable impacts, and induce exploration of alternative model assumptions aiming to alleviate the problem found. As the alternative is again implemented in the coupled set of models, the synergies with or trade-offs against other indicators are revealed.
*Detailed descriptions of technical energy systems, and integration of land-use related emissions and carbon sinks enable IMAGE to explore very low greenhouse gas emissions scenarios, contributing to the increasingly explored field of very low climate forcing scenarios.


*The integrated nature of IMAGE enables linkages between climate change, other environmental concerns and human development issues to be explored, thus contributing to informed discussion on a more sustainable future including trade-offs and synergies between stresses and possible solutions.
===Model components===
{{DisplayFigureTemplate|IMAGE framework schematic}}
The components of the IMAGE framework are presented in the [[IMAGE framework schematic]] (the figure on the right), which also shows the information flow from the critical driving factors to the impact indicators. An overview of the model components is provided in [[IMAGE_framework_summary]], and the model components are described in their component pages (via [[Framework overview|Components overview]]).


[[File:004s img13.png|thumb|550px|left|alt=IMAGE framework scheme|link=An overview of the IMAGE framework and its components]]
Future pathways or scenarios depend on the assumed projections of key driving forces. Thus, all results can only be understood and interpreted in the context of the assumed future environment in which they unfold.


[[Figure 1.2  IMAGE 3.0 diagram. All dark-colored boxes also refer to a separate [[Chapter**]] a in this book except for the impacts surrounded by dashed lines, they are computed by models in the box “Earth System” and just briefly listed in the Introduction to Impacts.]]
As a result of the exogenous drivers, IMAGE projects how human activities would develop in the Human system, namely in the energy and agricultural systems (see [[IMAGE framework schematic]]). Human activities and the associated demand for ecosystem services are connected to the Earth System through the ‘interconnectors’ Land Cover and Land Use, and Emissions (see [[IMAGE framework schematic]]).


Assumed policy interventions lead to model responses, taking into account all internal interactions and feedback. Impacts in various forms arise either directly from the model, for example, the extent of future land-use for agriculture and forestry or the average global temperature increase up to 2050. Other indicators are generated by activating additional models that use the output from the core IMAGE model and other assumptions to estimate the effects, such as biodiversity (GLOBIO; see Components [[Terrestrial biodiversity]] and [[Aquatic biodiversity]]) and [[flood risks]].


Currently, impacts emerging from additional models do not influence the outcome of the model run directly. The results obtained can reveal unsustainable or otherwise undesirable impacts and explore alternative model assumptions to alleviate the problem. As the alternative is implemented in the linked models, synergies and trade-offs against other indicators are revealed.


The socio-economic developments are modeled for 26 world regions (see Figure 1.3) and the terrestrial parts of the earth system are done on a grid of 5x5 minutes, also as fractional land use within a coarser grid of 0.5x0.5 degrees,. Atmosphere and ocean processes are modeled at much coarser scales, as more detail is not directly relevant for the functioning in the overall model framework.  
====Base year====
As part of the model calibration, model settings are adjusted to reproduce the state-of-the-world over the period starting in 1970 to a final ‘base year’. This is done using exogenous data to calibrate internal parameters. From 2005 onwards, a range of model drivers rooted in more generic narratives and scenario drivers must be prepared either by experts or teams at PBL or partner institutes to provide inputs, such as population, economic projections and food production (see [[Drivers]]. These steps are taken in consultation with stakeholders and sponsors of the studies and with project partners.


====IMAGE outputs====
An IMAGE run produces a long list of outputs representing the various parts of the framework, either as end indicator or as intermediate inputs driving operations further downstream. Together the outputs span the range from drivers to pressures, states and impacts. (See [[Variable overview]] and related overviews.)


[[ Figure 1.3: The 26 world regions in IMAGE 3.0 (NB: currently (also?) Figure 2.1)]]
The IMAGE 3.0 model has a wide range of outputs, including:
* energy use, conversion and supply;
* agricultural production, land cover and land-use;
* nutrient cycles in natural and agricultural systems;
* emissions to air and surface water;
* carbon stocks in biomass pools, soils, atmosphere and oceans;
* atmospheric emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants;
* concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and radiative forcing;
* changes in temperature and precipitation;
* sea-level rise;
* water use for irrigation.


These standard outputs are complemented with additional impact models with indicators for biodiversity, human development, water stress, and flood risks. 


The regional approach, operating within global boundaries, is very insightful to identify where specific problems manifest themselves the most, where the driving factors are concentrated and how changes in some parts of the world influence other regions.
===Spatial resolution===
{{DisplayFigureTemplate|Region classification map}}
While IMAGE is designed to address global issues, impacts and challenges tend to occur at different geographic scales and different degrees in different parts of the world. This depends on location-specific biophysical conditions and the level of human development (for example, high income, industrialized versus low income, subsistence agriculture dominated regions and all levels in between). It implies that indicators at the level of global totals or global averages are rarely adequate to reveal the real problems. Furthermore, policy interventions and governance structures are not uniform across scales, administrative entities, and areas defined by cultural and political factors.


While an integrated framework such as IMAGE contains, and must contain, variables in many different domains, looking at applications and areas where development work has concentrated, it is appropriate to say that the model framework focusses on two main clusters:
IMAGE models socio-economic developments in 26 world regions to capture spatial and multi-scale differences (see the figure). Land use, land cover, and associated biophysical processes are treated at the grid level to capture local dynamics. The grid size has been reduced to 5 x 5 arcminutes in IMAGE 3.0 (corresponding to 10 x 10 km at the equator), from 30 x 30 arcminutes (0.5 x 0.5 degrees) in IMAGE 2. Operating within global boundaries, the regional approach provides insight to identify where specific problems manifest, where the driving factors are concentrated, and how changes in some regions influence other regions.
# Energy and climate
# Food, land, water and forestry
It must be noted, that many relations exist in IMAGE between these two clusters. To name a few: climate change impacts on agriculture and nature, land for bio-energy with implications for food prices, water for irrigation competing with water as coolant for electric power plants, and many more. In fact, these mutual relations, synergies and trade-offs are typically most interesting from the perspective of policy discussions that face the complicating effect of unintended but often undesirable impacts on other concerns than the issue for which they aim to find solutions. For that purpose it is extremely helpful that IMAGE 3.0 has the capacity to generate a long and widely diverging set of indicators, relevant for different sectors and regions.


In order to avoid possible confusion it is good to realize that on the one hand there exists an IMAGE 3.0 core model, comprising (almost all) processes mentioned in the boxes Socio-economic system, Earth system and their connectors Landcover/Land-use and Emissions, and parts of the impacts. In practice this consists of two pieces of model code: IMAGE/[[TIMER model|TIMER]] energy and IMAGE/Land&Climate. As mentioned, a suite of other models is additionally available to generate impacts. But also to provide input to the socio-economic system, such as agro-economic models to project future agricultural production requirements. Furthermore, policy models such as [[FAIR model|FAIR]] play an important role in exploring effectiveness, efficiency and equity aspects of future climate policy regimes, and provide input on emissions constraints and price signals arising from climate policy proposals. That wider set is commonly referred to as the MAGE 3.0 framework .  
===Areas of application===
An integrated framework, such as IMAGE 3.0, covers a wide range of human and Earth systems components and contains variables in many domains. Development and applications of the IMAGE framework focus on two interrelated clusters: energy and climate; and food, land, water and biodiversity.


To apply the IMAGE 3.0 model for a specific purpose, what is needed is of course the model with all endogenous settings and data so that it reproduces the relevant aspects of the state-of-the-world in the year 2005. In fact, the state in the year 2005 is calculated by the model over the period starting in 1970, using exogenous data to calibrate internal parameters. From 2005 onwards, a range of model drivers, rooted in more generic scenario drivers, must be prepared either by experts or teams at PBL, or by working together with other partners supplying inputs such as population, economic projections and food production. For more information on drivers, see [[Scenario drivers]]. Of course, all this typically done in consultation with stakeholders and sponsors of the studies, and with project partners.
There are many relationships between these two clusters in IMAGE. For instance, climate change impacts agriculture and nature, land use for bioenergy has implications for food prices, and water for irrigation competes with water for coolant in electric power plants. Synergies and trade-offs are interesting from the perspective of policy discussions concerning the complicating effects of unintended and often undesirable impacts. IMAGE 3.0 can generate a long and widely diverging set of indicators for different sectors and regions.


An IMAGE run produces a very long list of output representing the results of the various parts of the framework, either as end-indicator or as intermediate deliveries driving operations further downstream. Together the outputs span the range from drivers to pressures, states and finally impacts. Outputs from the IMAGE 3.0 core model concern energy use, conversion and supply; agricultural production; land cover and land-use; nutrient cycles in natural and agricultural systems; emissions to air and surface water; carbon stocks in biomass pools, soils, atmosphere and oceans; atmospheric emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants; concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and radiative forcing; changes in temperature and precipitation; sea level rise; water use for irrigation; and many others. The additional impact models complement these ‘standard’ outputs with biodiversity indicators; human development indicators; water stress; flood risks; and others.
===Modular structure===
{{DisplayFigureTemplate|IMAGE framework schematic}}
Over the years, various components of the IMAGE framework have been replaced by expert models developed outside IMAGE, which be used either as stand-alone models or within the IMAGE framework (see [[Computer models overview]]) .  


===Scientific quality===
The IMAGE 3.0 core model comprises most processes in the Human system, the Earth system and their connectors Land cover/Land use and Emissions, and parts of the impacts (see the figure on the right). This core model consists of IMAGE/TIMER energy and IMAGE/Land & Climate. The latter also includes the LPJmL model, an essential component of any IMAGE model run, representing carbon, water, crop and vegetation dynamics.  
As another mechanism to assure scientific quality, the IMAGE model is subjected to review procedures at irregular intervals, most recently in 2006 for the just released model version 2.4. Also with the release of IMAGE3.0, an advisory boards is assembled and asked for a review of the current model version. The Advisory Board performing the review looks at various aspects, such as scientific rigor and quality of the methods and data. As the scientific quality of the overall framework hinges critically on sufficient and adequate resources, the organizational set-up, personal capacity and expertise at PBL and the partner organizations, the merits and risks of the network strategy also form part of the Advisory Board’s review.


===Model access/availability SOMEETTHING**===
The IMAGE 3.0 framework contains other models used to simulate impacts (such as, [[GLOBIO model|GLOBIO]], [[GLOFRIS model|GLOFRIS]] and [[GISMO model|GISMO]]) and models that describe parts of the Human system, such as agro-economic models ([[MAGNET model|MAGNET]] and [[IMPACT model|IMPACT]]) to project future agricultural production requirements. Furthermore, policy models, such as [[FAIR model|FAIR]], are used to explore the effectiveness, efficiency, and equity of climate policy regimes and provide input on emission constraints and price signals arising from climate policy proposals.
Another implication of the IMAGE 3.0 framework including several external expert models is that making the model available to potential other users is either quite complicated, due to distributed ownership, or would only provide the core part of the model. However, as we acknowledge the possible benefit of open-source software to scientific quality and innovation, we are considering to take this step in the future.
</div>
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Latest revision as of 16:58, 7 October 2021

Parts of IMAGE framework

  1. Setting the stage
  2. IMAGE 3.0 in a nutshell
  3. Recent model developments
  4. A brief history of IMAGE
  5. Organisational set-up and scientific quality
  6. Uncertainties
Projects/Applications
Models/Databases
Relevant overviews


The IMAGE 3.0 model

IMAGE 3.0 is a comprehensive integrated modelling framework of interacting human and natural systems. The model framework is suited to large scale (primarily global) and long-term (up to the year 2100) assessments of interactions between human development and the natural environment. It integrates a range of sectors, ecosystems and indicators. The impacts of human activities on the natural systems and natural resources are assessed and how such impacts hamper the provision of ecosystem services to sustain human development.

The model identifies socio-economic pathways, and projects the implications for energy, land, water and other natural resources, subject to resource availability and quality. Unintended side effects, such as emissions to air, water and soil, climatic change, and depletion and degradation of remaining stocks (fossil fuels, forests), are calculated and considered in future projections.

Features

IMAGE has been designed to be comprehensive in terms of human activities, sectors and environmental impacts, and where and how these are connected through common drivers, mutual impacts, and synergies and trade-offs. IMAGE 3.0 is the latest version of the IMAGE framework models, and has the following features:

  • Comprehensive and balanced integration of energy and land systems was a pioneering feature of IMAGE. Recently, other IAMs have been developed in similar directions and comprehensive IAMs are becoming more mainstream.
  • Coverage of all emissions by sources/sinks including natural sources/sinks makes IMAGE appropriate to provide input to bio-geochemistry models and complex Earth System Models (ESMs).
  • In addition to climate change, which is the primary focus of most IAMs, the IMAGE framework covers a broad range of closely interlinked dimensions. These include water availability and water quality, air quality, terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity, resource depletion, with competing claims on land and many ecosystem services.
  • Rather than averages over larger areas, spatial modelling of all terrestrial processes for specific grid cells captures the influence of local conditions and yields valuable results and insights for impact models.
  • IMAGE is based on biophysical/technical processes, capturing these processes' inherent constraints and limits.
  • Integrated into the IMAGE framework, MAGICC-6 is a simple climate model calibrated to more complex climate models. Using downscaling tools, this model uses the spatial patterns of temperature and precipitation changes, which vary between climate models.
  • Detailed descriptions of technical energy systems, and integration of land-use related emissions and carbon sinks enable IMAGE to explore very low greenhouse gas emissions scenarios, contributing to the increasingly explored field of very low climate forcing scenarios.
  • The integrated nature of IMAGE enables linkages between climate change, other environmental concerns and human development issues to be explored, thus contributing to informed discussion on a more sustainable future including trade-offs and synergies between stresses and possible solutions.

Model components

An overview of the IMAGE framework
An overview of the IMAGE framework and its components

The components of the IMAGE framework are presented in the IMAGE framework schematic (the figure on the right), which also shows the information flow from the critical driving factors to the impact indicators. An overview of the model components is provided in IMAGE_framework_summary, and the model components are described in their component pages (via Components overview).

Future pathways or scenarios depend on the assumed projections of key driving forces. Thus, all results can only be understood and interpreted in the context of the assumed future environment in which they unfold.

As a result of the exogenous drivers, IMAGE projects how human activities would develop in the Human system, namely in the energy and agricultural systems (see IMAGE framework schematic). Human activities and the associated demand for ecosystem services are connected to the Earth System through the ‘interconnectors’ Land Cover and Land Use, and Emissions (see IMAGE framework schematic).

Assumed policy interventions lead to model responses, taking into account all internal interactions and feedback. Impacts in various forms arise either directly from the model, for example, the extent of future land-use for agriculture and forestry or the average global temperature increase up to 2050. Other indicators are generated by activating additional models that use the output from the core IMAGE model and other assumptions to estimate the effects, such as biodiversity (GLOBIO; see Components Terrestrial biodiversity and Aquatic biodiversity) and flood risks.

Currently, impacts emerging from additional models do not influence the outcome of the model run directly. The results obtained can reveal unsustainable or otherwise undesirable impacts and explore alternative model assumptions to alleviate the problem. As the alternative is implemented in the linked models, synergies and trade-offs against other indicators are revealed.

Base year

As part of the model calibration, model settings are adjusted to reproduce the state-of-the-world over the period starting in 1970 to a final ‘base year’. This is done using exogenous data to calibrate internal parameters. From 2005 onwards, a range of model drivers rooted in more generic narratives and scenario drivers must be prepared either by experts or teams at PBL or partner institutes to provide inputs, such as population, economic projections and food production (see Drivers. These steps are taken in consultation with stakeholders and sponsors of the studies and with project partners.

IMAGE outputs

An IMAGE run produces a long list of outputs representing the various parts of the framework, either as end indicator or as intermediate inputs driving operations further downstream. Together the outputs span the range from drivers to pressures, states and impacts. (See Variable overview and related overviews.)

The IMAGE 3.0 model has a wide range of outputs, including:

  • energy use, conversion and supply;
  • agricultural production, land cover and land-use;
  • nutrient cycles in natural and agricultural systems;
  • emissions to air and surface water;
  • carbon stocks in biomass pools, soils, atmosphere and oceans;
  • atmospheric emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants;
  • concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and radiative forcing;
  • changes in temperature and precipitation;
  • sea-level rise;
  • water use for irrigation.

These standard outputs are complemented with additional impact models with indicators for biodiversity, human development, water stress, and flood risks.

Spatial resolution

A map of the region classification used in IMAGE framework
The IMAGE framework region classification.

While IMAGE is designed to address global issues, impacts and challenges tend to occur at different geographic scales and different degrees in different parts of the world. This depends on location-specific biophysical conditions and the level of human development (for example, high income, industrialized versus low income, subsistence agriculture dominated regions and all levels in between). It implies that indicators at the level of global totals or global averages are rarely adequate to reveal the real problems. Furthermore, policy interventions and governance structures are not uniform across scales, administrative entities, and areas defined by cultural and political factors.

IMAGE models socio-economic developments in 26 world regions to capture spatial and multi-scale differences (see the figure). Land use, land cover, and associated biophysical processes are treated at the grid level to capture local dynamics. The grid size has been reduced to 5 x 5 arcminutes in IMAGE 3.0 (corresponding to 10 x 10 km at the equator), from 30 x 30 arcminutes (0.5 x 0.5 degrees) in IMAGE 2. Operating within global boundaries, the regional approach provides insight to identify where specific problems manifest, where the driving factors are concentrated, and how changes in some regions influence other regions.

Areas of application

An integrated framework, such as IMAGE 3.0, covers a wide range of human and Earth systems components and contains variables in many domains. Development and applications of the IMAGE framework focus on two interrelated clusters: energy and climate; and food, land, water and biodiversity.

There are many relationships between these two clusters in IMAGE. For instance, climate change impacts agriculture and nature, land use for bioenergy has implications for food prices, and water for irrigation competes with water for coolant in electric power plants. Synergies and trade-offs are interesting from the perspective of policy discussions concerning the complicating effects of unintended and often undesirable impacts. IMAGE 3.0 can generate a long and widely diverging set of indicators for different sectors and regions.

Modular structure

An overview of the IMAGE framework
An overview of the IMAGE framework and its components

Over the years, various components of the IMAGE framework have been replaced by expert models developed outside IMAGE, which be used either as stand-alone models or within the IMAGE framework (see Computer models overview) .

The IMAGE 3.0 core model comprises most processes in the Human system, the Earth system and their connectors Land cover/Land use and Emissions, and parts of the impacts (see the figure on the right). This core model consists of IMAGE/TIMER energy and IMAGE/Land & Climate. The latter also includes the LPJmL model, an essential component of any IMAGE model run, representing carbon, water, crop and vegetation dynamics.

The IMAGE 3.0 framework contains other models used to simulate impacts (such as, GLOBIO, GLOFRIS and GISMO) and models that describe parts of the Human system, such as agro-economic models (MAGNET and IMPACT) to project future agricultural production requirements. Furthermore, policy models, such as FAIR, are used to explore the effectiveness, efficiency, and equity of climate policy regimes and provide input on emission constraints and price signals arising from climate policy proposals.

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