Key policy issues overview

Which policy issues are addressed by which component grouped by policy theme. The policy response components (Climate policy, Air pollution and energy policies, Land and biodiversity policies) summarise policy issues and policy interventions.

• Agricultural land use (Land use)
• Air quality (Air pollution)
• Animal husbandry (Food)
• Aquatic biodiversity (NB)
• BC-OC emissions (Air pollution)
• Climate adaptation (Climate)
• Climate change (Climate)
• Climate impacts (Climate)
• Climate mitigation (Climate)
• Crop production (Food)
• Degradation (Land use)
• Eco goods and services (NB)
• Energy demand (Energy)
• Energy emissions (Energy)
• Energy system (Energy)
• Food demand (Food)
• Forestry (Land use)
• GHG emissions (Climate)
• Human development (HD)
• Irrigation (Water)
• Land cover (NB)
• Land use system (Land use)
• Nutrition and diet (Food)
• Other air pollution (Air pollution)
• Other climate (Climate)
• Other energy (Energy)
• Other food (Food)
• Other land use (Land use)
• Other water (Water)
• Terrestrial biodiversity (NB)
• Trade (Food)
• Water quality (Water)
• Water stress (Water)

Theme Climate, Air pollution, Food, Nature and biodiversity, Land use, Energy, Water, Human development

Item: Agricultural land use (Land use)

Component	Description
Agricultural economy	What is the area of cropland and grassland required to support future food demand?
Agricultural economy	What are the policy options to reduce agricultural land use and to safeguard global biodiversity, while ensuring food security?
Carbon cycle and natural vegetation	What is the role of the terrestrial biosphere in the global carbon cycle, how will it change in time as a result of climate and land-use change?
Carbon, vegetation, agriculture and water	What is the role of the terrestrial biosphere in the global carbon cycle, how will it change in time as a result of climate and land-use change?
Carbon, vegetation, agriculture and water	How do climate change and land-use management affect the land productivity of current and future agricultural land?
Crops and grass	How will agriculture affect the Earth system with respect to carbon emissions, freshwater availability and nutrient cycles?
Livestock systems	How does the use of marginal lands for grazing increase the risk of degradation and loss of productivity, inducing more forest clearing?

Item: Air quality (Air pollution)

Component	Description
Air pollution and energy policies	How do energy policies contribute to economic and social development, and how do they support or hamper a more sustainable future?
Air pollution and energy policies	How can the goals for affordable, clean and reliable energy be achieved taking into account possible synergies and trade-offs?
Emissions	How will emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants develop in scenarios with and without policy interventions, such as climate policy and air pollution control?
Emissions	What synergies between climate policy and air pollution control can be identified?
IMAGE framework summary	What are the consequences of these changes for international targets for biodiversity protection (addressed by the CBD), climate change (UNFCCC) and human development (addressed by the Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals)?
IMAGE framework summary	How could global environmental issues such as climate change, biodiversity loss and air pollution evolve?
Livestock systems	What are the impacts of increasing livestock production on land use, greenhouse gases and other emissions to air and surface water?

Item: Animal husbandry (Food)

Component	Description
Land-use allocation	How can agricultural intensification increase global food production, and what policies will contribute to this?
Livestock systems	What are the impacts of increasing livestock production on land use, greenhouse gases and other emissions to air and surface water?
Livestock systems	How does the use of marginal lands for grazing increase the risk of degradation and loss of productivity, inducing more forest clearing?

Item: Aquatic biodiversity (NB)

Component	Description
Aquatic biodiversity	What are the key pressure factors causing loss of aquatic biodiversity?
Aquatic biodiversity	How will policies and measures to reduce the key pressure factors contribute to meeting the internationally agreed targets of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)?
Aquatic biodiversity	How will the biodiversity in freshwater bodies develop in the absence of additional policies and measures?
IMAGE framework summary	How could global environmental issues such as climate change, biodiversity loss and air pollution evolve?
IMAGE framework summary	What are the consequences of these changes for international targets for biodiversity protection (addressed by the CBD), climate change (UNFCCC) and human development (addressed by the Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals)?
Terrestrial biodiversity	How will nature conservation policies and measures to reduce the key pressure factors of biodiversity loss contribute to meeting the targets of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)?
Terrestrial biodiversity	What are the key pressure factors causing biodiversity loss?

Item: BC-OC emissions (Air pollution)

Component	Description
Emissions	How will emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants develop in scenarios with and without policy interventions, such as climate policy and air pollution control?

Item: Climate adaptation (Climate)

Component	Description
Climate policy	What are the trade-offs between mitigation costs, adaptation costs, and climate change damage?

Item: Climate change (Climate)

Component	Description
Atmospheric composition and climate	What would be the impact of global climate change in this century without additional mitigation policies and measures?
Atmospheric composition and climate	To what extent would the various scenarios to significantly reduce net greenhouse gas emissions lead to a reduction in climate change?
Atmospheric composition and climate	To what extent does the uncertainty of geographical patterns in temperature and precipitation change influence future climate impacts and response strategies?
Carbon cycle and natural vegetation	What are the contributions of land-use change, climate change and CO2 fertilization on the future carbon cycle and how can these be considered in climate policies?
Carbon, vegetation, agriculture and water	How do climate change and land-use management affect the land productivity of current and future agricultural land?
Climate policy	What global greenhouse gas emissions pathways would meet the well below 2 °C climate target?
IMAGE framework summary	How could global environmental issues such as climate change, biodiversity loss and air pollution evolve?
IMAGE framework summary	What are the consequences of these changes for international targets for biodiversity protection (addressed by the CBD), climate change (UNFCCC) and human development (addressed by the Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals)?
Land degradation	To what extent are ecosystem functions lost by soil degradation, adding to local and global concerns about food security, biodiversity loss and climate change?

Item: Climate impacts (Climate)

Component	Description
Climate policy	What are the trade-offs between mitigation costs, adaptation costs, and climate change damage?
Crops and grass	How will climate change affect the productivity of current and future agricultural areas?

Item: Climate mitigation (Climate)

Component	Description
Air pollution and energy policies	How do energy policies contribute to economic and social development, and how do they support or hamper a more sustainable future?
Atmospheric composition and climate	To what extent would the various scenarios to significantly reduce net greenhouse gas emissions lead to a reduction in climate change?
Climate policy	What are the trade-offs between mitigation costs, adaptation costs, and climate change damage?
Climate policy	What is the effect of the NDCs on achieving the long term 2 ºC target?
Emissions	How will emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants develop in scenarios with and without policy interventions, such as climate policy and air pollution control?
Emissions	What synergies between climate policy and air pollution control can be identified?
Energy conversion	What are the potential roles of individual technologies, such as carbon capture and storage (CCS), nuclear power, hydrogen and renewable energy?
Energy supply and demand	What transitions in the energy system would meet long-term climate goals?

Item: Crop production (Food)

Component	Description
Carbon, vegetation, agriculture and water	What is the combined effect of climate change and socio-economic development on water demand and availability, and associated agricultural production?
Carbon, vegetation, agriculture and water	How do climate change and land-use management affect the land productivity of current and future agricultural land?
Crops and grass	How will climate change affect the productivity of current and future agricultural areas?
Land-use allocation	How can agricultural intensification increase global food production, and what policies will contribute to this?
Water	What is the combined effect of climate change and socio-economic development on water demand and availability, and on associated agricultural production?

Item: Degradation (Land use)

Component	Description
Carbon cycle and natural vegetation	What opportunities exist to reduce land-use related carbon emissions (e.g. REDD) and even enhance the carbon uptake through the establishment of new forests.
Land degradation	In what parts of the world have human-induced changes in land and soil conditions occurred?
Land degradation	What are the future risks of soil degradation?
Land degradation	To what extent are ecosystem functions lost by soil degradation, adding to local and global concerns about food security, biodiversity loss and climate change?

Item: Eco goods and services (NB)

Component	Description
Ecosystem services	How would ecosystem services and the benefits from the natural environment develop in the absence of specific policies?
Ecosystem services	How could policy interventions contribute to improving future ecosystem services?
Ecosystem services	How could policy interventions influence the interaction between ecosystem services and other goals and ambitions, such as the millennium development goals?
Forest management	How can management influence forest capacity to meet future demand for wood and other ecosystem services?

Item: Energy demand (Energy)

Component	Description
Air pollution and energy policies	How do energy policies contribute to economic and social development, and how do they support or hamper a more sustainable future?
Air pollution and energy policies	How can the goals for affordable, clean and reliable energy be achieved taking into account possible synergies and trade-offs?
Energy demand	How will energy demand evolve particularly in emerging and medium- and low-income economies?
Energy demand	What is the mix of end-use energy carriers to meet future energy demand?
Energy demand	How can energy efficiency contribute to reducing the growth rate of energy demand and mitigate pressures on the global environment?
Energy supply	How can energy supply and demand be balanced between world regions, and how will this effect security of supply?
Energy supply and demand	How can energy supply and demand become more sustainable, balancing human development, security of supply, and concerns about climate change and air pollution?

Item: Energy emissions (Energy)

Component	Description
Energy demand	How can energy efficiency contribute to reducing the growth rate of energy demand and mitigate pressures on the global environment?
Energy supply and demand	How can energy supply and demand become more sustainable, balancing human development, security of supply, and concerns about climate change and air pollution?

Item: Energy system (Energy)

Component	Description
Energy demand	How can energy efficiency contribute to reducing the growth rate of energy demand and mitigate pressures on the global environment?
Energy supply	How can energy resources be exploited to meet future primary energy demand?
Energy supply	How rapidly can the transition to more sustainable energy supply be made?
Energy supply and demand	How can energy supply and demand become more sustainable, balancing human development, security of supply, and concerns about climate change and air pollution?

Item: Food demand (Food)

Component	Description
Agricultural economy	What are the policy options to reduce agricultural land use and to safeguard global biodiversity, while ensuring food security?

Item: Forestry (Land use)

Component	Description
Forest management	How can management influence forest capacity to meet future demand for wood and other ecosystem services?
Forest management	What are the implications of forest management for pristine and managed forest areas, and on biomass and carbon stocks and fluxes of relevance for climate policy?
Forest management	What are the prospects for more sustainable forest management and the role of production in dedicated forest plantations?
Land-use allocation	How will land-use regulation, such as protected areas and REDD schemes, affect future land use and the impacts of land-use change?

Item: GHG emissions (Climate)

Component	Description
Agricultural economy	How can the implications of biofuels for land use and greenhouse gases be managed sustainably?
Atmospheric composition and climate	To what extent would the various scenarios to significantly reduce net greenhouse gas emissions lead to a reduction in climate change?
Carbon cycle and natural vegetation	What is the role of the terrestrial biosphere in the global carbon cycle, how will it change in time as a result of climate and land-use change?
Carbon cycle and natural vegetation	To what extent can the terrestrial biosphere contribute to reducing the accumulation of CO2 in the atmosphere and what are viable mechanisms?
Carbon cycle and natural vegetation	What opportunities exist to reduce land-use related carbon emissions (e.g. REDD) and even enhance the carbon uptake through the establishment of new forests.
Carbon, vegetation, agriculture and water	What is the role of the terrestrial biosphere in the global carbon cycle, how will it change in time as a result of climate and land-use change?
Climate policy	What global greenhouse gas emissions pathways would meet the well below 2 °C climate target?
Climate policy	What is the effect of effort-sharing approaches on regional and national emission reduction targets and on the cost of climate policies?
Crops and grass	How could management improve agricultural productivity under current and future water constraints?
Emissions	How will emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants develop in scenarios with and without policy interventions, such as climate policy and air pollution control?
Emissions	What synergies between climate policy and air pollution control can be identified?
Forest management	What are the implications of forest management for pristine and managed forest areas, and on biomass and carbon stocks and fluxes of relevance for climate policy?
Land and biodiversity policies	How can land-use policies contribute to strategies for halting biodiversity loss and reducing greenhouse gas emissions?
Livestock systems	What are the impacts of increasing livestock production on land use, greenhouse gases and other emissions to air and surface water?

Item: Human development (HD)

Component	Description
Human development	What are the key future trends in human development, such as those targeted by the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)?
Human development	How are changes in the global environment likely to affect human development?
Human development	How is improved access to food, water and energy likely to contribute to human development?
IMAGE framework summary	How could response strategies limit environmental pressures and foster more sustainable development?
IMAGE framework summary	What are the linkages between components of environmental change and human development? What are key uncertainties?

Item: Irrigation (Water)

Component	Description
Carbon, vegetation, agriculture and water	What is the combined effect of climate change and socio-economic development on water demand and availability, and associated agricultural production?
Water	What is the potential of adaptation measures to reduce water stress and water-related crop production losses?
Water	What is the combined effect of climate change and socio-economic development on water demand and availability, and on associated agricultural production?

Item: Land cover (NB)

Component	Description
Aquatic biodiversity	How will the biodiversity in freshwater bodies develop in the absence of additional policies and measures?
Crops and grass	How will agriculture affect the Earth system with respect to carbon emissions, freshwater availability and nutrient cycles?

Item: Land use system (Land use)

Component	Description
Agricultural economy	What is the area of cropland and grassland required to support future food demand?
Land-use allocation	How will land-use regulation, such as protected areas and REDD schemes, affect future land use and the impacts of land-use change?

Item: Nutrition and diet (Food)

Component	Description
Land and biodiversity policies	How can changes in consumption patterns contribute to achieving sustainability goals through changes in land use?
Land-use allocation	How will changes in agricultural demand and trade affect future land-use patterns?
Livestock systems	What are the impacts of increasing livestock production on land use, greenhouse gases and other emissions to air and surface water?

Item: Other air pollution (Air pollution)

Component	Description
Emissions	How will emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants develop in scenarios with and without policy interventions, such as climate policy and air pollution control?
Livestock systems	What are the impacts of increasing livestock production on land use, greenhouse gases and other emissions to air and surface water?

Item: Other climate (Climate)

Component	Description
Climate policy	What is the effect of effort-sharing approaches on regional and national emission reduction targets and on the cost of climate policies?
Climate policy	What are the trade-offs between mitigation costs, adaptation costs, and climate change damage?
Climate policy	What global greenhouse gas emissions pathways would meet the well below 2 °C climate target?
Crops and grass	How could management improve agricultural productivity under current and future water constraints?

Item: Other energy (Energy)

Component	Description
Energy conversion	What is the potential role of energy conversion sector, particularly in power production, in achieving a more sustainable energy system?
Energy conversion	What are the potential roles of individual technologies, such as carbon capture and storage (CCS), nuclear power, hydrogen and renewable energy?
Energy supply and demand	What transitions in the energy system would meet long-term climate goals?
Energy supply and demand	How are these strategies affected by uncertainties in the energy system?
Energy supply and demand	How can energy supply and demand become more sustainable, balancing human development, security of supply, and concerns about climate change and air pollution?

Item: Other food (Food)

Component	Description
Land and biodiversity policies	What are the synergies and trade-offs between halting biodiversity loss, food security, reducing nutrient emissions, and reducing water stress?

Item: Other land use (Land use)

Component	Description
Agricultural economy	How can the implications of biofuels for land use and greenhouse gases be managed sustainably?
Carbon cycle and natural vegetation	What are the contributions of land-use change, climate change and CO2 fertilization on the future carbon cycle and how can these be considered in climate policies?

Item: Other water (Water)

Component	Description
Flood risks	How will future flood risk change as a result of socio-economic changes and climate change?
Flood risks	What would be the impact of floods, in terms of damage and victims, and where are the hot spots?
Flood risks	What would be suitable adaptation strategies and investment options related to flood risk?

Item: Terrestrial biodiversity (NB)

Component	Description
Agricultural economy	What are the policy options to reduce agricultural land use and to safeguard global biodiversity, while ensuring food security?
IMAGE framework summary	How could global environmental issues such as climate change, biodiversity loss and air pollution evolve?
IMAGE framework summary	What are the consequences of these changes for international targets for biodiversity protection (addressed by the CBD), climate change (UNFCCC) and human development (addressed by the Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals)?
Land and biodiversity policies	What are the synergies and trade-offs between halting biodiversity loss, food security, reducing nutrient emissions, and reducing water stress?
Land and biodiversity policies	How can land-use policies contribute to strategies for halting biodiversity loss and reducing greenhouse gas emissions?
Land degradation	In what parts of the world have human-induced changes in land and soil conditions occurred?
Terrestrial biodiversity	What is the future rate of terrestrial biodiversity loss in the absence of additional policies and measures?
Terrestrial biodiversity	How will nature conservation policies and measures to reduce the key pressure factors of biodiversity loss contribute to meeting the targets of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)?
Terrestrial biodiversity	What are the key pressure factors causing biodiversity loss?

Item: Trade (Food)

Component	Description
Land-use allocation	How will changes in agricultural demand and trade affect future land-use patterns?

Item: Water quality (Water)

Component	Description
Aquatic biodiversity	How will the biodiversity in freshwater bodies develop in the absence of additional policies and measures?
Aquatic biodiversity	What are the key pressure factors causing loss of aquatic biodiversity?
Aquatic biodiversity	How will policies and measures to reduce the key pressure factors contribute to meeting the internationally agreed targets of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)?
Nutrients	To what extent can the negative impacts be reduced by more efficient nutrient management and wastewater treatment, while retaining the positive effects on food production and land productivity?

Item: Water stress (Water)

Component	Description
Aquatic biodiversity	How will policies and measures to reduce the key pressure factors contribute to meeting the internationally agreed targets of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)?
Carbon, vegetation, agriculture and water	What is the combined effect of climate change and socio-economic development on water demand and availability, and associated agricultural production?
Crops and grass	How will agriculture affect the Earth system with respect to carbon emissions, freshwater availability and nutrient cycles?
Land and biodiversity policies	What are the synergies and trade-offs between halting biodiversity loss, food security, reducing nutrient emissions, and reducing water stress?
Nutrients	How will the increasing use of fertilisers affect terrestrial and marine ecosystems, with possible consequences for human health?
Water	How can water demand be reduced and still provide the adequate service levels to the sectors with the highest demand?
Water	What is the combined effect of climate change and socio-economic development on water demand and availability, and on associated agricultural production?
Water	What is the potential of adaptation measures to reduce water stress and water-related crop production losses?

Related overviews

• Key policy issues per component type overview
• Policy interventions overview