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<div class="page_standard"> <h2>Interventions targeting the agricultural production system</h2> The agricultural production system concerns how animals are raised and crops are cultivated. The characteristics of a particular system, for example what inputs are required to produce one unit of product, define the environmental impacts. Various interventions may increase the efficiency of production systems, and thus lead to reductions in inputs or in environmental impacts. Results of an efficiency increase in livestock management are presented in the PBL report The Protein Puzzle ([[PBL, 2011]]; [[Stehfest et al., 2013]]). Alternative cropping practices are summarised in Roads from Rio+20 ([[PBL, 2012]]). (see also [[The Protein Puzzle (2011) project]] and [[Roads from Rio+20 (2012) project]]. {{DisplayFigureLeftOptimalTemplate|Flowchart Land and biodiversity policies (B)}} </div> '''Carbon tax in agricultural production''' Agricultural production produces greenhouse-gas emissions: Fertilization of crops and manure from livestock produce N<sub>2</sub>O emissions, and enteric fermentation from ruminants and production of rice in paddy fields results in CH<sub>4</sub> emissions. By placing a carbon tax on these emissions, similar to policy implemented in the [[Climate policy]] model, these emissions can be reduced in a cost-optimal way. This is implemented in the [[Agricultural economy]] model and results in substitution of consumption towards less emission-intensive products, additional intensification of agricultural production, and in reduced consumption leading to effects on food security. This policy is implemented in a model intercomparison study with IMAGE, GLOBIOM, CAPRI and MAGNET ([[Frank et al., 2018]]). {{#default_form:PolicyResponsePartForm}}
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Policy intervention set description: Interventions to improve livestock systems could include use of breeds that have higher feed conversion rates, require another ratio of feed composites, or produce less manure. Changes in feed conversion or feed composition, for example the ratio of grazing to feed crop feeding, have an impact on demand for grazing and cropland. Thus, changes to these systems will lead to other environmental impacts and other patterns of agricultural land use. For instance, quantity and quality of manure produced affect nitrogen emission levels and thus also nutrient balances and climate change impacts. In addition, biodiversity is affected by nitrogen emissions. Interventions can also be directed to improving animal welfare, but in most cases, higher animal welfare standards require more input per unit of production ([[PBL, 2011]]). Storage and application of manure varies with livestock systems, and affects crop yields and emission levels. A secondary impact of increasing feed efficiencies could be cost reductions, leading to a similar feedback effect as described for changes in demand. Two interrelated interventions in the cropping system are distinguished: # improved cropping systems or varieties; # increasing crop and grass yields or increasing cropping intensity (number of crops per year). Management in agriculture is an interplay of the cultivar chosen, soil management, fertiliser and other inputs, and the choice and timing of each cultivation step. The first interventions focus on reducing often negative external effects other than land use, and the second intervention targets the use of as small land areas as possible.
Consists of policy interventions: Afforestation policiesAgricultural trade policiesApply emission and energy intensity standardsAvoiding deforestationCapacity targetsCarbon taxChange in grazing intensityChange market shares of fuel typesChange the use of electricity and hydrogenChanges in consumption and diet preferencesChanges in crop and livestock production systemsChanges in feed rationClimate change adaptationClosing the yield gapEffort- or burden-sharing of emission reductionsEmission trading policyEnergy tax or subsidiyEnlarge protected areasExcluding certain technologiesExpanding Reduced Impact LoggingFinancing climate policyHydropowerImplementation of biofuel targetsImplementation of land use planningImplementation of sustainability criteria in bio-energy productionImprove behaviourImprove quality of accessImproved irrigation efficiencyImproved manure storageImproved rainwater managementImprovement of feed conversionImproving energy efficiencyIncrease access to foodIncrease access to waterIncrease forest plantationsIncrease natural carbon storageIncreased livestock productivityIncreased storage capacityIntegrated manure managementIntensification or extensification of livestock systemsIntensification/extensification of livestock systemsMitigate environmental changesMore sustainable forest managementNon-CO2 taxation policiesProduction targets for energy technologiesProvision on improved stoves for traditional bio-energyREDD policiesReducing health riskReduction of waste/lossesReduction proposals (pledges)Restrictions on fuel tradeSanitation measuresSubsidies on modern energy
Policy intervention set description: Improved cropping systems or varieties could increase the use efficiency of inputs including water and nutrients. Inputs fine-tuned to crop requirements would lead to less nitrogen emissions or less water use per tonne of crop and, would reduce the impacts on biodiversity and climate. While improved management could also lead to higher yields (see below), improved systems could mean a shift in inputs, such as labour, capital, land, fertiliser and water. This may alter the cost price of agricultural products, market prices and consumption.
Policy intervention set description: Yields can be increased with other varieties, for example, to increase the potential yield, or with improved management (thus, close the yield gap). However, other, more suitable crop varieties often also need different types of management in order to produce higher yields.
Policy intervention set description: The cropping intensity can be increased by multiple cropping (more harvests per year) depending on climatic conditions, or by decreasing the area left fallow. Both interventions would decrease the required production area for all crops but could also increase the environmental impacts per hectare of crops. Where lower area requirements decrease biodiversity and climate impacts, the environmental impacts per hectare could increase them again. Thus, to decrease biodiversity loss, yield increases need to go hand in hand with system changes to reduce external impacts. Increased cropping intensity increases the risk of soil degradation without adaptation of cropping rotations or soil management.
Policy intervention set description: Agricultural production produces greenhouse-gas emissions: Fertilization of crops and manure from livestock produce N2O emissions, and enteric fermentation from ruminants and production of rice in paddy fields results in CH4 emissions. By placing a carbon tax on these emissions, similar to policy implemented in the [[Climate policy]] model, these emissions can be reduced in a cost-optimal way. This is implemented in the [[Agricultural economy]] model and results in substitution of consumption towards less emission-intensive products, additional intensification of agricultural production, and in reduced consumption leading to effects on food security. This policy is implemented in a model intercomparison study with IMAGE, GLOBIOM, CAPRI and MAGNET ([[Frank et al., 2018]]).
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