Key policy issues overview

• Access to drinking water (Water)
• Agricultural land use (Land use)
• Air quality (Air pollution)
• Animal husbandry (Food)
• Aquatic biodiversity (NB)
• BC-OC emissions (Air pollution)
• Climate adaptation (Climate)
• Climate change (Climate)
• Climate impacts (Climate)
• Climate mitigation (Climate)
• Crop production (Food)
• Degradation (Land use)
• Eco goods and services (NB)
• Energy demand (Energy)
• Energy emissions (Energy)
• Energy system (Energy)
• Flood risk (Water)
• Food demand (Food)
• Forestry (Land use)
• GHG emissions (Climate)
• Human development (HD)
• Irrigation (Water)
• Land cover (NB)
• Land use system (Land use)
• Natural vegetation (Land use)
• Nutrition and diet (Food)
• Other air pollution (Air pollution)
• Other climate (Climate)
• Other energy (Energy)
• Other food (Food)
• Other land use (Land use)
• Other nature and biodiversity (NB)
• Other water (Water)
• Precipitation (Water)
• Terrestrial biodiversity (NB)
• Trade (Food)
• Water quality (Water)
• Water stress (Water)

All key policy questions per theme including description and related component

Tables per theme

Access to drinking water (Water) (0)

Agricultural land use (Land use) (7)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ1 (AEF) What is the area of cropland and grassland required to support future food demand? Agricultural economy PQ2 (AEF) What are the policy options to reduce agricultural land use and to safeguard global biodiversity, while ensuring food security? Agricultural economy PQ1 (NVCC) What is the role of the terrestrial biosphere in the global carbon cycle, how will it change in time as a result of climate and land-use change? Carbon cycle and natural vegetation PQ3 (VHA) What is the role of the terrestrial biosphere in the global carbon cycle, how will it change in time as a result of climate and land-use change? Carbon, vegetation, agriculture and water PQ2 (VHA) How do climate change and land-use management affect the land productivity of current and future agricultural land? Carbon, vegetation, agriculture and water PQ3 (CG) How will agriculture affect the Earth system with respect to carbon emissions, freshwater availability and nutrient cycles? Crops and grass PQ2 (LS) How does the use of marginal lands for grazing increase the risk of degradation and loss of productivity, inducing more forest clearing? Livestock systems

Air quality (Air pollution) (7)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ2 (APEP) How can the goals for affordable, clean and reliable energy be achieved taking into account possible synergies and trade-offs? Air pollution and energy policies PQ1 (APEP) How do energy policies contribute to economic and social development, and how do they support or hamper a more sustainable future? Air pollution and energy policies PQ1 (E) How will emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants develop in scenarios with and without policy interventions, such as climate policy and air pollution control? Emissions PQ2 (E) What synergies between climate policy and air pollution control can be identified? Emissions PQ1 (IF) How could global environmental issues such as climate change, biodiversity loss and air pollution evolve? IMAGE framework summary PQ2 (IF) What are the consequences of these changes for international targets for biodiversity protection (addressed by the CBD), climate change (UNFCCC) and human development (addressed by the Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals)? IMAGE framework summary PQ1 (LS) What are the impacts of increasing livestock production on land use, greenhouse gases and other emissions to air and surface water? Livestock systems

Animal husbandry (Food) (3)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ3 (AS) How can agricultural intensification increase global food production, and what policies will contribute to this? Land-use allocation PQ1 (LS) What are the impacts of increasing livestock production on land use, greenhouse gases and other emissions to air and surface water? Livestock systems PQ2 (LS) How does the use of marginal lands for grazing increase the risk of degradation and loss of productivity, inducing more forest clearing? Livestock systems

Aquatic biodiversity (NB) (7)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ2 (AB) What are the key pressure factors causing loss of aquatic biodiversity? Aquatic biodiversity PQ3 (AB) How will policies and measures to reduce the key pressure factors contribute to meeting the internationally agreed targets of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)? Aquatic biodiversity PQ1 (AB) How will the biodiversity in freshwater bodies develop in the absence of additional policies and measures? Aquatic biodiversity PQ1 (IF) How could global environmental issues such as climate change, biodiversity loss and air pollution evolve? IMAGE framework summary PQ2 (IF) What are the consequences of these changes for international targets for biodiversity protection (addressed by the CBD), climate change (UNFCCC) and human development (addressed by the Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals)? IMAGE framework summary PQ3 (TB) How will nature conservation policies and measures to reduce the key pressure factors of biodiversity loss contribute to meeting the targets of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)? Terrestrial biodiversity PQ2 (TB) What are the key pressure factors causing biodiversity loss? Terrestrial biodiversity

BC-OC emissions (Air pollution) (1)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ1 (E) How will emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants develop in scenarios with and without policy interventions, such as climate policy and air pollution control? Emissions

Climate adaptation (Climate) (1)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ4 (CP) What are the trade-offs between mitigation costs, adaptation costs, and climate change damage? Climate policy

Climate change (Climate) (9)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ1 (ACC) What would be the impact of global climate change in this century without additional mitigation policies and measures? Atmospheric composition and climate PQ2 (ACC) To what extent would the various scenarios to significantly reduce net greenhouse gas emissions lead to a reduction in climate change? Atmospheric composition and climate PQ3 (ACC) To what extent does the uncertainty of geographical patterns in temperature and precipitation change influence future climate impacts and response strategies? Atmospheric composition and climate PQ3(NVCC) What are the contributions of land-use change, climate change and CO₂ fertilization on the future carbon cycle and how can these be considered in climate policies? Carbon cycle and natural vegetation PQ2 (VHA) How do climate change and land-use management affect the land productivity of current and future agricultural land? Carbon, vegetation, agriculture and water PQ1 (CP) What global greenhouse gas emissions pathways would meet the well below 2 °C climate target? Climate policy PQ1 (IF) How could global environmental issues such as climate change, biodiversity loss and air pollution evolve? IMAGE framework summary PQ2 (IF) What are the consequences of these changes for international targets for biodiversity protection (addressed by the CBD), climate change (UNFCCC) and human development (addressed by the Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals)? IMAGE framework summary PQ3 (LD) To what extent are ecosystem functions lost by soil degradation, adding to local and global concerns about food security, biodiversity loss and climate change? Land degradation

Climate impacts (Climate) (2)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ4 (CP) What are the trade-offs between mitigation costs, adaptation costs, and climate change damage? Climate policy PQ1 (CG) How will climate change affect the productivity of current and future agricultural areas? Crops and grass

Climate mitigation (Climate) (8)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ1 (APEP) How do energy policies contribute to economic and social development, and how do they support or hamper a more sustainable future? Air pollution and energy policies PQ2 (ACC) To what extent would the various scenarios to significantly reduce net greenhouse gas emissions lead to a reduction in climate change? Atmospheric composition and climate PQ4 (CP) What are the trade-offs between mitigation costs, adaptation costs, and climate change damage? Climate policy PQ3 (CP) What is the effect of the NDCs on achieving the long term 2 ºC target? Climate policy PQ1 (E) How will emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants develop in scenarios with and without policy interventions, such as climate policy and air pollution control? Emissions PQ2 (E) What synergies between climate policy and air pollution control can be identified? Emissions PQ2 (EC) What are the potential roles of individual technologies, such as carbon capture and storage (CCS), nuclear power, hydrogen and renewable energy? Energy conversion PQ2 (ESD) What transitions in the energy system would meet long-term climate goals? Energy supply and demand

Crop production (Food) (5)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ2 (VHA) How do climate change and land-use management affect the land productivity of current and future agricultural land? Carbon, vegetation, agriculture and water PQ4 (VHA) What is the combined effect of climate change and socio-economic development on water demand and availability, and associated agricultural production? Carbon, vegetation, agriculture and water PQ1 (CG) How will climate change affect the productivity of current and future agricultural areas? Crops and grass PQ3 (AS) How can agricultural intensification increase global food production, and what policies will contribute to this? Land-use allocation PQ1 (H) What is the combined effect of climate change and socio-economic development on water demand and availability, and on associated agricultural production? Water

Degradation (Land use) (4)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ3 (NVCC) What opportunities exist to reduce land-use related carbon emissions (e.g. REDD) and even enhance the carbon uptake through the establishment of new forests. Carbon cycle and natural vegetation PQ1 (LD) In what parts of the world have human-induced changes in land and soil conditions occurred? Land degradation PQ2 (LD) What are the future risks of soil degradation? Land degradation PQ3 (LD) To what extent are ecosystem functions lost by soil degradation, adding to local and global concerns about food security, biodiversity loss and climate change? Land degradation

Eco goods and services (NB) (4)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ1 (EGS) How would ecosystem services and the benefits from the natural environment develop in the absence of specific policies? Ecosystem services PQ2 (EGS) How could policy interventions contribute to improving future ecosystem services? Ecosystem services PQ3 (EGS) How could policy interventions influence the interaction between ecosystem services and other goals and ambitions, such as the millennium development goals? Ecosystem services PQ1 (FM) How can management influence forest capacity to meet future demand for wood and other ecosystem services? Forest management

Energy demand (Energy) (7)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ1 (APEP) How do energy policies contribute to economic and social development, and how do they support or hamper a more sustainable future? Air pollution and energy policies PQ2 (APEP) How can the goals for affordable, clean and reliable energy be achieved taking into account possible synergies and trade-offs? Air pollution and energy policies PQ1 (ED) How will energy demand evolve particularly in emerging and medium- and low-income economies? Energy demand PQ2 (ED) What is the mix of end-use energy carriers to meet future energy demand? Energy demand PQ3 (ED) How can energy efficiency contribute to reducing the growth rate of energy demand and mitigate pressures on the global environment? Energy demand PQ2 (ES) How can energy supply and demand be balanced between world regions, and how will this effect security of supply? Energy supply PQ1 (ESD) How can energy supply and demand become more sustainable, balancing human development, security of supply, and concerns about climate change and air pollution? Energy supply and demand

Energy emissions (Energy) (2)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ3 (ED) How can energy efficiency contribute to reducing the growth rate of energy demand and mitigate pressures on the global environment? Energy demand PQ1 (ESD) How can energy supply and demand become more sustainable, balancing human development, security of supply, and concerns about climate change and air pollution? Energy supply and demand

Energy system (Energy) (4)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ3 (ED) How can energy efficiency contribute to reducing the growth rate of energy demand and mitigate pressures on the global environment? Energy demand PQ1 (ES) How can energy resources be exploited to meet future primary energy demand? Energy supply PQ3 (ES) How rapidly can the transition to more sustainable energy supply be made? Energy supply PQ1 (ESD) How can energy supply and demand become more sustainable, balancing human development, security of supply, and concerns about climate change and air pollution? Energy supply and demand

Flood risk (Water) (0)

Food demand (Food) (1)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ2 (AEF) What are the policy options to reduce agricultural land use and to safeguard global biodiversity, while ensuring food security? Agricultural economy

Forestry (Land use) (4)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ1 (FM) How can management influence forest capacity to meet future demand for wood and other ecosystem services? Forest management PQ2 (FM) What are the implications of forest management for pristine and managed forest areas, and on biomass and carbon stocks and fluxes of relevance for climate policy? Forest management PQ3 (FM) What are the prospects for more sustainable forest management and the role of production in dedicated forest plantations? Forest management PQ2 (AS) How will land-use regulation, such as protected areas and REDD schemes, affect future land use and the impacts of land-use change? Land-use allocation

GHG emissions (Climate) (14)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ3 (AEF) How can the implications of biofuels for land use and greenhouse gases be managed sustainably? Agricultural economy PQ2 (ACC) To what extent would the various scenarios to significantly reduce net greenhouse gas emissions lead to a reduction in climate change? Atmospheric composition and climate PQ1 (NVCC) What is the role of the terrestrial biosphere in the global carbon cycle, how will it change in time as a result of climate and land-use change? Carbon cycle and natural vegetation PQ2 (NVCC) To what extent can the terrestrial biosphere contribute to reducing the accumulation of CO₂ in the atmosphere and what are viable mechanisms? Carbon cycle and natural vegetation PQ3 (NVCC) What opportunities exist to reduce land-use related carbon emissions (e.g. REDD) and even enhance the carbon uptake through the establishment of new forests. Carbon cycle and natural vegetation PQ3 (VHA) What is the role of the terrestrial biosphere in the global carbon cycle, how will it change in time as a result of climate and land-use change? Carbon, vegetation, agriculture and water PQ1 (CP) What global greenhouse gas emissions pathways would meet the well below 2 °C climate target? Climate policy PQ2 (CP) What is the effect of effort-sharing approaches on regional and national emission reduction targets and on the cost of climate policies? Climate policy PQ2 (CG) How could management improve agricultural productivity under current and future water constraints? Crops and grass PQ1 (E) How will emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants develop in scenarios with and without policy interventions, such as climate policy and air pollution control? Emissions PQ2 (E) What synergies between climate policy and air pollution control can be identified? Emissions PQ2 (FM) What are the implications of forest management for pristine and managed forest areas, and on biomass and carbon stocks and fluxes of relevance for climate policy? Forest management PQ1 (LBP) How can land-use policies contribute to strategies for halting biodiversity loss and reducing greenhouse gas emissions? Land and biodiversity policies PQ1 (LS) What are the impacts of increasing livestock production on land use, greenhouse gases and other emissions to air and surface water? Livestock systems

Human development (HD) (5)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ1 (HD) What are the key future trends in human development, such as those targeted by the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)? Human development PQ2 (HD) How are changes in the global environment likely to affect human development? Human development PQ3 (HD) How is improved access to food, water and energy likely to contribute to human development? Human development PQ3 (IF) How could response strategies limit environmental pressures and foster more sustainable development? IMAGE framework summary PQ4 (IF) What are the linkages between components of environmental change and human development? What are key uncertainties? IMAGE framework summary

Irrigation (Water) (3)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ4 (VHA) What is the combined effect of climate change and socio-economic development on water demand and availability, and associated agricultural production? Carbon, vegetation, agriculture and water PQ1 (H) What is the combined effect of climate change and socio-economic development on water demand and availability, and on associated agricultural production? Water PQ2 (H) What is the potential of adaptation measures to reduce water stress and water-related crop production losses? Water

Land cover (NB) (2)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ1 (AB) How will the biodiversity in freshwater bodies develop in the absence of additional policies and measures? Aquatic biodiversity PQ3 (CG) How will agriculture affect the Earth system with respect to carbon emissions, freshwater availability and nutrient cycles? Crops and grass

Land use system (Land use) (2)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ1 (AEF) What is the area of cropland and grassland required to support future food demand? Agricultural economy PQ2 (AS) How will land-use regulation, such as protected areas and REDD schemes, affect future land use and the impacts of land-use change? Land-use allocation

Natural vegetation (Land use) (0)

Nutrition and diet (Food) (3)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ2 (LBP) How can changes in consumption patterns contribute to achieving sustainability goals through changes in land use? Land and biodiversity policies PQ1 (AS) How will changes in agricultural demand and trade affect future land-use patterns? Land-use allocation PQ1 (LS) What are the impacts of increasing livestock production on land use, greenhouse gases and other emissions to air and surface water? Livestock systems

Other air pollution (Air pollution) (2)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ1 (E) How will emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants develop in scenarios with and without policy interventions, such as climate policy and air pollution control? Emissions PQ1 (LS) What are the impacts of increasing livestock production on land use, greenhouse gases and other emissions to air and surface water? Livestock systems

Other climate (Climate) (4)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ1 (CP) What global greenhouse gas emissions pathways would meet the well below 2 °C climate target? Climate policy PQ2 (CP) What is the effect of effort-sharing approaches on regional and national emission reduction targets and on the cost of climate policies? Climate policy PQ4 (CP) What are the trade-offs between mitigation costs, adaptation costs, and climate change damage? Climate policy PQ2 (CG) How could management improve agricultural productivity under current and future water constraints? Crops and grass

Other energy (Energy) (5)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ2 (EC) What are the potential roles of individual technologies, such as carbon capture and storage (CCS), nuclear power, hydrogen and renewable energy? Energy conversion PQ1 (EC) What is the potential role of energy conversion sector, particularly in power production, in achieving a more sustainable energy system? Energy conversion PQ1 (ESD) How can energy supply and demand become more sustainable, balancing human development, security of supply, and concerns about climate change and air pollution? Energy supply and demand PQ2 (ESD) What transitions in the energy system would meet long-term climate goals? Energy supply and demand PQ3 (ESD) How are these strategies affected by uncertainties in the energy system? Energy supply and demand

Other food (Food) (1)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ3 (LBP) What are the synergies and trade-offs between halting biodiversity loss, food security, reducing nutrient emissions, and reducing water stress? Land and biodiversity policies

Other land use (Land use) (2)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ3 (AEF) How can the implications of biofuels for land use and greenhouse gases be managed sustainably? Agricultural economy PQ3(NVCC) What are the contributions of land-use change, climate change and CO₂ fertilization on the future carbon cycle and how can these be considered in climate policies? Carbon cycle and natural vegetation

Other nature and biodiversity (NB) (0)

Other water (Water) (3)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ1 (FR) How will future flood risk change as a result of socio-economic changes and climate change? Flood risks PQ2 (FR) What would be the impact of floods, in terms of damage and victims, and where are the hot spots? Flood risks PQ3 (FR) What would be suitable adaptation strategies and investment options related to flood risk? Flood risks

Precipitation (Water) (0)

Resources (Energy) (0)

Terrestrial biodiversity (NB) (9)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ2 (AEF) What are the policy options to reduce agricultural land use and to safeguard global biodiversity, while ensuring food security? Agricultural economy PQ1 (IF) How could global environmental issues such as climate change, biodiversity loss and air pollution evolve? IMAGE framework summary PQ2 (IF) What are the consequences of these changes for international targets for biodiversity protection (addressed by the CBD), climate change (UNFCCC) and human development (addressed by the Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals)? IMAGE framework summary PQ1 (LBP) How can land-use policies contribute to strategies for halting biodiversity loss and reducing greenhouse gas emissions? Land and biodiversity policies PQ3 (LBP) What are the synergies and trade-offs between halting biodiversity loss, food security, reducing nutrient emissions, and reducing water stress? Land and biodiversity policies PQ1 (LD) In what parts of the world have human-induced changes in land and soil conditions occurred? Land degradation PQ1 (TB) What is the future rate of terrestrial biodiversity loss in the absence of additional policies and measures? Terrestrial biodiversity PQ3 (TB) How will nature conservation policies and measures to reduce the key pressure factors of biodiversity loss contribute to meeting the targets of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)? Terrestrial biodiversity PQ2 (TB) What are the key pressure factors causing biodiversity loss? Terrestrial biodiversity

Trade (Food) (1)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ1 (AS) How will changes in agricultural demand and trade affect future land-use patterns? Land-use allocation

Water quality (Water) (4)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ1 (AB) How will the biodiversity in freshwater bodies develop in the absence of additional policies and measures? Aquatic biodiversity PQ2 (AB) What are the key pressure factors causing loss of aquatic biodiversity? Aquatic biodiversity PQ3 (AB) How will policies and measures to reduce the key pressure factors contribute to meeting the internationally agreed targets of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)? Aquatic biodiversity PQ2 (N) To what extent can the negative impacts be reduced by more efficient nutrient management and wastewater treatment, while retaining the positive effects on food production and land productivity? Nutrients

Water stress (Water) (8)

Template:IntroTableTemplate PQ3 (AB) How will policies and measures to reduce the key pressure factors contribute to meeting the internationally agreed targets of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)? Aquatic biodiversity PQ4 (VHA) What is the combined effect of climate change and socio-economic development on water demand and availability, and associated agricultural production? Carbon, vegetation, agriculture and water PQ3 (CG) How will agriculture affect the Earth system with respect to carbon emissions, freshwater availability and nutrient cycles? Crops and grass PQ3 (LBP) What are the synergies and trade-offs between halting biodiversity loss, food security, reducing nutrient emissions, and reducing water stress? Land and biodiversity policies PQ1 (N) How will the increasing use of fertilisers affect terrestrial and marine ecosystems, with possible consequences for human health? Nutrients PQ2 (H) What is the potential of adaptation measures to reduce water stress and water-related crop production losses? Water PQ3 (H) How can water demand be reduced and still provide the adequate service levels to the sectors with the highest demand? Water PQ1 (H) What is the combined effect of climate change and socio-economic development on water demand and availability, and on associated agricultural production? Water